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CONTENTS
1. Introduction. 1
2. Preventive Medicine. 1
2.1 Design of Animal Facilities. 1
2.2 Diet. 1
2.3 Hygiene. .1
2.4 Observation of Animals. .1
2.5 Parasite Control. .1
2.6 Pest Control. .2
2.7 Physical Examination. .2
2.8 Quarantine. .2
2.9 Vaccination. .2
2.10 Veterinary Visits. .2
3. Nutrition. .2
3. 1 Nutritional Requirements of Felidae . .2
3.2 Protein. .2
3.3 Fat. .3
3.4 Vitamins. .3
3.5 Minerals. .3
3. 6 Feeding Recommendations. .3
3.7 Hand-rearing Diets. .4
4. Quarantine. .4
5. Parasite Control. .6
6. Vaccination. .6
6. 1 Feline Infectious Enteritis. .7
6.2 Cat "plu". .8
6.3 Live FIE & FRT/FCV Vaccines. .8
6.4 Rabies. .8
6.5 Feline Leukaemia . .8
6.6 Miscellaneous. .8
7. Pre-release Screening .8
8. Transport of Cats. .9
9. Anaesthesia. .10
1O. Important Diseases and Conditions. .12
10.1 Bacterial Disease. .12
Bacterial enteritis. .12
Localised and systemic bacterial infections. .12
Miscellaneous . .12
Tuberculosis. .12
10.2 Fungal Disease. .12
Candidiasis. .12
Ringworm. .12
10.3 Parasitic Disease. .12
Cestodes. .12
Ectoparasites. .12
Nematodes . .12
Protozoa. .12
10.4 Viral Disease. .12
Feline immunodeficiency virus . .12
Feline infectious enteritis. .12
Feline infectious peritonitis. .12
Feline leukaemia virus. .12
Poxvirus. .12
Rabies. .12
Upper respiratory tract infections. .12
10.5 Nutritional Disease. .12
Obesity. .12
Nutritional bone disease. .12
Vitamin E deficiency. .12
Thiamine deficiency. .12
Hypervitaminosis A. .13
10.6 Miscellaneous Conditions. .13
Congenital problems. .13
Dental problems. .13
Feline spongiform encephalopathy. .13
Hepaticdisease . .13
Renal disease. .13
Toxic substances. .13
11. Post Mortem Examination (Autopsy) Protocol. .13
12. Control of Reproduction . .14
12.1 Permanent Contraceptive Techniques for Females. .14
Ovarohysterectomy. .14
Ovariectomy. .14
Tubal ligation and salpingectomy. .14
12.2 Permanent Contraceptive Techniques for Males. .14
Castration. .14
Vasectomy. .14
12.3 Temporary Contraceptive Techniques in Females. .14
Oral progestagens. .14
Injectable progestagens. .14
Implanted progestagens. .15
Side effects of progestagens. .15
12.4 Future Techniques. .15
Vaccination. .15
"Vas plugs". .15
GnRH agonists/antagonists. .15
Bisdiamines. .15
13. Fertility Assessment and Artificial Reproductive Techniques. .15
13.1 Fertiliry Assessment. .15
Females. .16
Males. .16
13.2 Artificial Reproductive Techniques . .16
14. Reference Sources & Further ReadiI4 .17
ii
Appendices.
1. Virus scree/Survey of Zoo cats.
2. Post mortem examination protocol.
iii
INTRODUCTION.
The value of establishing veterinary protocols of a high standard that are adopted by all UK cat collections should be self-evident. It is possible by applying such protocols to improve the quali%' of care for animals within collections, to ensure that such care is consistent between participating collections, and to enhance our ability to gather and disseminate relevant data about the care and problems of different species. Furthermore, smaller collections with limited numbers of animals (and perhaps experience) should be able to work to the same standard as the larger, more established collections and thereby gain both confidence and credibility in their ability to contribute to the conservation of cats. The UK Felid TAG therefore feels that it is desirable to issue guidelines that summarise current thinking about the veterinary care of non-domestic cat species in the United Kingdom.
These guidelines are intended to direct the attention of collection curators, keepers and veterinary surgeons to those aspects of veterinary care relevant to non-domestic felidae.
As such, there is no intention either to provide a comprehensive manual or textbook, or to present an altemative to qualified veterinary advice. The diagnosis and treatment of disease is rightly the prerogative of qualified veterinary surgeons. More comprehensive accounts of all subjects summarised have been published elsewhere and the reader is directed to references listed in Section 14.
Throughout the text emphasis is placed on preventive medicine as it is in this area that the most profound influence on health can be exerted. Thus there are separate sections on the general principles of preventive medicine, nutrition, quarantine, parasite control, vaccination, pre-release screening and transport of cats. To encourage further understanding of the more technical veterinary aspects of cat care, sections on anaesthesia, disease, the procedure for post mortem examinations and aspects of reproductive science have also been included. In the final section a list of useful reference sources is provided.
Systematic and comprehensive recording of husbandry and medical data is encouraged to ensure that valuable information is not lost even if collation of such data is not yet possible in the UK. Accurate records can only be of value if all cats are permanently identified by subcutaneous transponders, skin tattoo's or preferably by both methods.
2. PREVENTIVE MEDICINE.
Rigorous preventive medicine programmes are essential for the successful keeping of non-domestic cats in captivity as it is always easier to prevent a disease than to diagnose and treat it. Such preventive programmes have many elements given that aspects of animal keeping have relevance to disease prevention. In this section the most important topics are listed alphabetically with notes for guidance. Further details are provided in separate sections where this is warranted.
2.1 Design of Animal Facilities.
Although highly relevant to preventive medicine programmes, design details of new enclosures and facilities will not be given in these guidelines. The particular requirements of individual species may be covered in later TAG publications. The reader's attention is drawn to the general principles adequately covered in pages 173 - 174 of the US Felid Action Plan, 1991/1992.
2.2 Diet.
See section 3, page 2
2.3 Hygiene.
The control of infectious organisms and toxic materials is greatly facilitated by high standards of general hygiene in all animal and food preparation/storage areas. The highest standards of personal hygiene must also be adopted by staff.
Feed and water containers and food preparation utensils should be cleaned and disinfected daily. Food and animal waste should be removed daily and disposed of carefully. It should be the veterinarian's responsibiliry to ensure that appropriate disinfectants are used and are used correctly.
Phenolic disinfectants should not be used.
2.4 Observation of Animals.
Each cat should be carefully observed every day. Notice should be taken not only of its physical state, but whether or not it is eating, drinking, defecating and urinating normally and an assessment made of its activity. Slight changes in activiry may be the only outward sign of systemic disease.
Careful examination of an animal's den and enclosure can also be rewarding. For example, cats are not always observed to vomit, but vomited material may be found.
Anything unusual found in a den or enclosure should be kept and shown to the anending veterinarian if there is any doubt about its origin or relevance. There are occasions when direct observation of a cat would involve too much disturbance - immediately before, during and after giving birth for example. Rather than trust that all is well in these circumstances, consideration should be given to the use of microphones or even video cameras with which cats can be monitored remotely. These can be installed at many locations, including inside cubbing dens. Installation must be carried out well in advance to avoid disrurbances at critical times.
2.5 Parasite Control.
See section5, page 6
2.6 Pest Control.
Rigorous pest control measures in and around cat enclosures, houses and food storage areas help to reduce the potential for introducing infectious disease. Such pests include rodents, birds, domestic cats and dogs, foxes and numerous invertebrates. Tick and flea infestations, some feline viral diseases, internal parasites including toxoplasmosis and bacterial diseases such as pseudotuberculosis, salmonellosis and leptospirosis can be all be introduced by these pests.
It is unlikely that pests can ever be eliminated, but their numbers must be kept to a minimum. Effective perimeter fencing is necessary to exclude larger mammals, such as dogs. Where a particular problem exists, smaller mammals may have to be trapped or poisoned. Care must be taken in selecting rodenticides that are relatively safe even if a cat ingests rodents that have fed on the bait. Similar care must be taken in selecting insecticides used against invertebrate pests, particularly flies and cockroaches. Good hygiene around cat enclosures will also help to reduce Lnsect pests.
The veterinarian should always be aware of which chemicals are used and preferably be consulted when they are selected. Finally, whatever pest control measures are employed care must be taken to avoid impacting non-target wildlife.
2.7 Physical Examination.
During quarantine and whenever else an oppormniry arises, cats should undergo a thorough physical examination. This is not generally possible without anaesthesia. Body weight shollld be recorded on each occasion, blood samples should be taken for routine haematology and biochemistry profiles and virological screening, and serum stored for future diagnostic or survey purposes. Further details of these tests are given in Section 4.
No physical examination is complete without a thorough inspection of the claws, pads, teeth and gums. Overgrown claws and abraided pads are often overlooked in the conscious animal. Dental problems are common in non-domestic cats and in severe cases can be life threatening due to secondary systemic disease. Gingivitis, dentalcalculus, fractured teeth with pulp exposure (especially canine and carnassial teeth) and food packing in the subgingival sulcus are common problems that require intervention.
2.8 Quarantine.
See section 4, page 4
2.9 Vaccination.
See section 6, page 6
2.10 Veterinary Visits.
Regular visits by the veterinarian should be made not only to attend sick cats, but also to discuss ongoing preventive medicine measures and to remain familiar with the collection and its keepers. During these visits, animal records can be checked and attention given to upkeep of safety measures for animals and staff.
3. NUTRITION
The provision of a high quality, well accepted, complete and balanced diet is essential for the well being of any captive animal. Designing diets should be considered a major part of any preventive health programme, but sadly this is rarely the case.
3.1 Nutritional Requirements of Felidae.
Cats are obligate camivores that k0l other animals for food.
Their prey includes mammals, birds, fish, amphibians, reptiles and insects, although individual species will have particular preferences. It is rarely possible to provide n atural prey species, and therefore a good understanding of the nutritional requirements of cats is necessary when formulating artificial diets.
Cats lack much of the metabolic flexibility of facultative carnivores or omnivores, and therefore have far more specific and demanding nutritional requirements than canids or ursids for example. This has many implications for the formulation of a correct diet. In general,non-domestic cats share the same nutritional requirements as their domestic counterpart.
3.2 Protein.
The largest differences between obligate and facultative carnivores are in amino acid and nitrogen metabolism. Cats require high levels of animal protein containing a wide range of essential amino acids, and have a limited abiliry to conserve nitrogen when dietary levels are low. Adult animals require at least 25 % of the dry weight of the diet in the form of protein, and for the growing animal at the point of weaning the figure is 33%. This is twice as much as required by the domestic dog for example.
Many essential amino acids are required preformed in a cat's diet as they cannot be synthesised in sufficient quantities by conversion of other amino acids. For example, cats require relatively high levels of dietary methionine, partly due to a need for precursors for the synthesis of another amino acid, taurine. However, they also require a dietary source of taurine as they are unable to synthesis sufficient. Taurine deficiency can lead to retinal degeneration and possibly cariomyopathy. Cats are also particularly sensitive to arginine deficiency which result in high blood ammonia levels and ammonia toxicity.
Cats do utilise soluble carbohydrates from other sources, but they derive most of their blood glucose from amino acid metabolism.
3.3 Fat.
Due to a limited ability to desaturate fatry acids, unlike other mammals cats cannot meet their essential fatry acid (EFA) requirements solely from linoleic and/or linolenic acids. Consequently, they also require a dietary source of arachidonic acid, an EFA only present in animal fat.
Deficiencies of fats of animal origin produce poor coat condition and reproductive failures.
3.4 Vitamins.
A cat's requirements for water soluble vitamins of the B group is present in whole animal prey items, although some are synthesised by the intestinal bacterial flora. Cats can synthesise vitamin C.
Cats are unable to synthesise vitamin A from the plant-derived precursor, beta-carotene. Therefore they rely on preformed vitamin A from animal tissue in the diet. This vitamin occurs predominantly in the viscera of prey, particularly the liver. Deficiencies may occur in cats fed unsupplemented meat diets. Vitamin A deficiency produces general ill thrift, anorexia, alopecia and neurological problems in some species. Conversely, excessive amounts of dietary vitamin A can lead to the development of painful bone abnormalities in the spine and limbs.
Vitamin D requirements of cats are poorly understood.
Contrary to popular belief, recent studies suggest that synthesa of vitamin D3 in the skin may be inefficient in the domestic cat. Were this the case in other felids, dietary supplementation with D3 could be desirable. Excessive dietary vitamin D is dangerous and can promote the mineralisation of soft tissues throughout the body.
Vitamin E requirements are high, the level depending on other dietary constituents. A deficiency may occur in cats fed an unsupplemented diet high in fat.
3.5 Minerals.
Carcases of terrestrial vertebrates contain adequate amounts of the necessary minerals. However, where only meat is fed inadequate amounts of calcium and possibly manganese will be provided. Therefore such diets must be supplemented, particularly with calcium. Unsupplemented meat diets will result in nutritional bone disease in which bones are poorly mmeralised and subject to deformiry and fracture. This is particularly so in growing or lactating animals.
Excessive amounts of dietary calcium are not absorbed by cats, but may inhibite the absorption of manganese and zinc.
3.6 Feeding Recommendations.
Whole carcases are the natural food of cats and provide a complete and balanced diet, although their water and fat content can be variable. For the smaller and medium sized species, it is possible to provide a variety of commercially mostbred whole mice, rats, guinea pigs, rabbits, chicken etc as the major part of the diet. Freshly killed carcases should be fed if possible, but it is generally more practical to store batches of food animals deep frozen. These should be slowly and thorougNy thawed in a refridgerated area so that the surface temperature is kept low. (Bacterial growth is greatest on the surface). It is important to ensure that carcases are not fed whilst the inside is still frozen as this may lead to gastric upset. Once thawed, carcases should be offered to the cat at or around blood temperature if possible.
It is suggested that the intestines are removed from chicken carcases before being offered to lessen the risk of salmonella infection. Birds reared on zoo premises or culled from free-range flocks are preferred to reduce the risks of hormone and antibiotic residues sometimes present in broaer and battery chickens. Day-old chicks are easy and convenient to use as food, and form the staple diet for small felids in some collections. However, they are generally too rich in vitamin A. Once the chick has absorbed its yolk sac it becomes a more suitable food item. Thus where fac0ities permit it is useful to rear day-old chicks on and cull at different stages of growth to provide suitable sized carcases for a variery of the smaller cat species.
The feeding of wild birds and mammals such as rabbits, pigeons etc., is not advised. Wild animals can carry a variety of transmissible diseases and it is rarely possible to submit the carcases to adequate inspection prior to feeding.
The larger cats require far greater quantities of food than is eas0y provided with small carcases.Therefore they should be fed joints of meat on the bone or part carcases from domestic livestock such as sheep, goats, pigs, or horses. No brain or spinal cord material from ruminant animals should be fed. Until the epidemiology of feline spongiform encephalopathy (FSE) is better understood, it may be a wise precaution not to feed beef at all. Due to the high cost of meat suitable for human consumption, it is inevitable that such food is supplied by backers. Care is therefore needed in choosing a reputable supplier. Livestock that has been destroyed with barbirurates or other drugs of euthanasia should never be fed. Joints of meat and part carcases are usually stored frozen and must be thawed according to the conlments above.
Muscle meat is a good source of protein, some minerals and the B vitamins, but is very low in calcium, manganese and fat soluble vitamins such as A,D, or E. Therefore when fed, muscle meat and oarts of carcases should be supplemented with vitamins and minerals, especially calcium. Suitable commercial feline vitamine/mineral powder are widely available. When adding calcium separatly calcium carbonate is the most appropriate source. Cats require up to 100mg calcium per kiloyam bodyweight per day- A metric teaspoon of calcium carbonate contains 1 gram of calcium and is sufficient to supplement a meat meal for a 10kg cat.
Commercially prepared, nutritionally "complete", meat based feline diets are commonly fed in the United States of America, although they are not so popular in the UK. Although nutritionally balanced (for the domestic cat generally) problems do arise from their use. Some authors have suggested that liver damage in cheetah may be attributable to a high vitamin A content in some of these products. Other authors have suggested that the presence of oestrogens derived from soya beans is at fault. When thawed, these diets are soft and therefore can predispose increased dental tartar and calculus formation, leading to gingivitis, loose teeth and oral abscesses. Conversely, the regular feeding of whole prey items or meat on the bone not only provides physical stimulation for teeth and gums thus promoting dental and oral health, but may also stimulate more narural eating behaviours. Many commercially prepared diets have a high fat content and therefore can lead to obesity, which is a common problem in the captive cat.
Many zoo cats are obese. The amount to feed each animal is dependant on a number of variables including age, activiqJ level, reproductive status etc., and should be determined by experience and individual observation. Fast or starve days are used by many collections with their big cats. Although this practice may mimic conditions in the wild, there is little evidence that it is either beneficial or harmful. Small cats should always be fed at least once a day. Preset and nursing females should have their rations increased and supplemented with vitamins and minerals,especially calcium. This is particularly important with the smaller species.
It is generally good practice to vary the diet of any captive animal, including cats. Therefore whenever possible a range of food items should be offered during each week, and records kept of all meals offered and eaten. Many cats will take an occassional fish as well as the more usual diet items.
This not only adds to the variety of the diet but also provides a useful way of disguising the taste of strong tasting medicines.
Special attention must be paid to the diet for cats that have been recently moved or captured. It is necessary to bear in mind that these cats may refuse to eat due to the many changes in their living conditions including the different food, and that they may be under significant stress.
Nutritional inadequacies may become apparent under these circumstances. It is good practice to introduce a new diet gradually to any animal and if specialised diets have been fed previously it may be necessary to obtain a supply of this food to ease the change in diet. FresNy killed, whole animals with the abdominal cavity opened can provide an effective feeding stimulus to some cats.
3.7 Hand-rearing Diets.
Ideally, all cats should be mother reared. However, there will be circumstances - maternal neglect, disease etc., under which young must be taken away for hand-rearing.
Immediately after removal from their mother the young should be weighed and their sex determined, they should undergo a complete physical examination, the rectal temperature should be taken and the umbilicus (navel) should be disinfected. Congenital defects such as cleft palate will be detected at this stage. The degree of dehydration must be assessed at this stage by a veterinary surgeon, and if possible a blood sample taken for haematology and biochemistry. Prophylactic antibiotics may be given.
For the first 12 hours only 10% dextrose or oral rehydration fluids should be given. After this the chosen milk substitute should be introduced gradually using progressively stronger solutions until full strength milk substirute is being given at 48 hours. After each feed urination and defecation should be stimulated. Hand-reared animals should be weighed and the weights recorded every day. If diairhoea occurs, a faecal sample should be submined to a diagnostic veterinary laboratory to detect the presence of any infectious agents. In many cases this test will be negative and the diarrhoea is affributable to overfeeding or the feeding of an unsuitable or inadequately diluted milk substirute. In any event the milk should be replaced with oral rehydration fluids for 24 hours and the formula reintroduced or replaced gradually thereafter.
There are many artificial milk replacers for domestic cats on the market, but "KMR" for non-domestic cats is recommended. KMR is produced by Pet-Ag Inc, 30W432 Rt.20 Elgin, IL 60120, USA. Good results have also been obtained in the UK with "Cimicat" (Hoechst Pharmaceuticals) .
Solid food can be introduced at 4 weeks of age, with complete weaning usually possible by 10 - 12 weeks.
4. QUARANTINE.
All cats entering a collection, irrespective of their origin, must undergo a period of quarantine or isolation to prevent the introduction of infectious disease and to ensure that the animal is healthy before being mixed with resident animals.
The incoming cat should be held in quarantine for at least 30 days and in some cases longer. (A quarantine period of 6 months is cuirently required by the M.A.F.F. for most mammals imported into the UK from abroad.) Most infectious diseases will develop within 30 days and therefore if a newcomer is incubating such a disease it will become apparent before a chance has arisen to spread infection. A period in islation may also help to lessen the stress of moving ang mixing with other animals, particularly if the quarantine faciliry is in an off-show area and hence less disturbed. Furthermore the isolation period permits a thorough evaluation of health and sufficient time for any problems to be treated and the success of such treatment confirmed before contact with other cats is allowed. All animals in quarantine should be careftllly observed every day.
Quarantine should be cairied out in an independant facility located in an off-show area, which is physically isolated from all other areas that hold cats, has separate waste disposal facilities and is staffed by personnel who have no contact with resident animals. This ideal siruation is rarely possible even in the largest of collections. As a second best, an area should be chosen that is as far away ftom the rest of the collection as possible and staff servicing the faciliry should always carry out their routine duties with resident animals before dealing with those in isolation. Strict hygiene precautions must be observed within the quarantine area. A footbath containing a bacteriocidal and viricidal disinfectant should be placed at the entry and exit. This must be replenished regularly. Staff should wear overalls and boots that are specifically dedicated for use in the quarantine area.
Disposable gloves should be worn whilst working in the quarantine. Staff must bath or shower after working in the area. All utensils and ancillary equipment used in quarantine should be used only for that purpose.
The evaluation of an animal's health should begin by reviewing its medical record which should provide information about clinical problems, reproductive status, vaccination history and clinical pathology data. Ideally, the collection sending the cat should carry out a comprehensive health evalutaion before dispatch, but this is rarely done.
Within 7 - 10 days of arrival a thorough physical examination under general anaesthesia should be conducted.
The animal's weight can be recorded at this stage, its sex confirmed and, where necessary, a transponder implanted or tattoo applied for the purpose of identification. Under certain circumstances there may be value in submifting a blood sample for genetic fmgerprinting at this stage.
However, this technique is unlikely to be widely avaiable at a reasonable cost for several years to come. In the case of potential breeding males, a semen sample can be collected by electroej aculation for laboratory assessment.
Particular attention must be paid to examination of the teeth and gums as dental lesions are often overlooked and can have serious consequences.
Blood samples are taken for haematology and biochemistry proflles, serum storage and for disease screening purposs.
Routine haematology tests should includ examination of a blood smear and mesurement of hemoglobin, packed cell volume or hematocrit, red blood cell and reticulocyte counts, red cell parameters (MCH,MCV,MCHC), total and differential white cell counts, and a platelet count. Biochemical tests should include total protain, albumin, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, creatinine phosphokinase, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransfease and gamma glutamyl transpeptidase. These tests will provide
useful information for health evaluation and baseline values for future mvestigations. A summary of the normal blood values for some felid species is available from the International Species Inventory System (ISIS) and various other databases including the LYNX programme available from the Zoological Sociery of London.
Seem samples taken during quarantine should be tested for Feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) antigen and antibodies to Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV or Feline AIDS) and Feline coronavirus (Feline infectious peritonitis or FIP).
The presence of FeLV antigen or positive antibody titres to FIV or FIP could indicate that the cat has been exposed to these diseases and may be infectious to other cats. In any particular case, further tests may be required to clarify the situation - repeat antibody tests to demonstrate a rising antibody titre for example.
Feline immunodeficiency viruses have so far been isolated from three species of exotic felid (African lion, puma and pallas cat). Antibodies to FIV have been detected in many captive non-domestic cats and in free-ranging African lions.
Although the significance of the presence of virus and/or antibody has yet to be established, cases have now been described (in lion and snow leopard) that suggest FIV-positive non-domestic cats may become clinically affected. It is also important to appreciate that the FIV viruses recovered so far from exotic felids are not identical to the FIV of domestic cats, but merely of the same family.
Until the full significance of these FIV's is established, it would be wise to keep cats showing evidence of exposure or infection (ie. with positive antibody titres) isolated from those with negative titres.
As a result of discussions between the UK Felid TAG and the University of Liverpool, a survey of infectious diseases (including FIV,FeLV & FIP) in captive non-domestic felids in the UK has been organised. This should not only help individual collections in disease control, but also provide an idea of the prevalence of infection in various species. Serum samples submifted to Liverpool will be tested for FeLV, FIV, FIP as above. In addition, antibody titres will be determined for other possible feline pathogens including toxoplasmosis, feline panleucopaenia, canine distemper, couJpox, neospora and hantavirus. Cats are capable of being asymptomatic carriers of cat "flu" viruses (Feline herpesvirus and Feline calicivirus) and Livepool Universiry will also be able to check for the presence of these infectious agents by culturing from oropharyngeal swabs.
Details of the scheme are provided in Appendix 1. It may be possible to rxtend the scheme to include screening of free living Wildcat (Felis.silvestris) inthe UK should the opportunity arise.
Serum samples taken during quarantine should also be aliquoted and storred at -20oC or below for future reference. These are unvaluable for providing baseline data for a host of parameters and allowing retrospective diagnostic work.
Faecal samples should be submirted for bacteriological and parasitological examination during the quarantine period.
Given that some parasites and some pathogenic bacteria (especially Salmonella spp.) are shed intermiftantly, it is advised that at least three consecutive negative tests are required before the cat can be considered clear. Any parasites or pathogenic bacteria detected should be treated and faecal samples resubmitted to demonstrate the effectiveness or otherwise of treatment.
Where urine collection is practical, urinary colour, pH and specific graviry should be determined and the presence of glucose, protein, blood, ketones, bile pigments, cellular and acelluar deposits assessed. Many of these parameters are altered in disease. For example, an elevation of urinary protein can be indicative of glomerular amyloidosis - a condition to which black-footed cats appear particularly susceptible.
If or when the various tests described above are clear and the veterinary surgeon is convinced that an animal is healthy, it should be vaccinated. Sufficient time must be allowed for a cat to develop a protective antibody response to the vaccines whilst still in quarantine (see Section 6).
Should an animal die in quarantine, it must be subjected to a thorough post mortem examination. Should an animal die during rabies quarantine (ie. if it has come from abroad) M.A.F.F. must be advised immediately before any further action is taken.
5. PARASITE CONTROL.
Under most cucumstances, it is unlikely that exotic cats can be kept free from parasitic infestations. Therefore a monitoring and control programme should be implemented in all collections with the goal of reducing parasite infestations to as low a level as possible. A low level of parasitism will not usually result in clinical problems, whereas severe infestations may. For example, heavy roundworm infestations in young cats can cause diarrhoea, vomiting, loss of appetite, emaciation and even death. Faecal samples should be examined at least twice a year and more frequently where a specific problem is blown to exist. Parasite eggs in faeces indicate that adult parasites are present in the host animal's gut, and the numbers of eggs passed gives some indication of the severiry of infestation Protozoan parasites can be detected by direct examination of fresh faeces. Flotation methods are usually sufficient to detect metazoan parasites, although concentration methods may be necessary for the detection of low egg numbers and eggs that do not readily float. Parasites should be accurately identified so that appropriate treatment is given, and to eliminate from consideration any prey derived parasites that are passing through the cats' gut.
External parasites such as mange mites, ticks and fleas can be more difficult to detect unless there are obvious clinical signs such as excessive scratching, loss of hair or poor coat condition. When a cat is anaesthetised for any reason, it is wise to look for external parasites, including mites that can infest the external ear canals.
Where a particularly persistent parasite problem exists, the environment should be considered as well as the animal.
Heavy parasite burdens can build up in topsoil producing constant reinfestations. In this case, changing the topsoil can be the only effective solution, albeit expensive and time-consuming. The use of peat and bark chippings as an outside enclosure substrate helps to reduce environmental roundworm contamination, presumably due to the material's acidiry. Control of rodents or insects that act as intermediate hosts for some parasites may also be necessary. If chronic parasite infestations are present in a group of cats, regular treatment with anthelmintics at frequent intervals (eg. every 3 months) may be necessary. In this case, it is good practice to alternate the type of anthelmintic employed.
Details of some safe anthelmintics are given in Table 1.
Oral anthelmintics are often more effective when given over several days (usually 3) rather than in a single dose.
Follow-up faecal samples taken at least 2 weeks after the completion of any course of treatment should be examined to assess the effectivenes of an anthelmintic. In many cases further treatments are necessary to eliminate larval parasite stages not susceptible to initial drug regimes.
6. VACCINATION.
Domestic cats are routinely vaccinated against the viral diseases feline infectious enteritis (FIE or Feline panleucopaenia) and cat "flu" (infection with either or both feline rhinotracheitis virus (FRT) and feline calici virus (FCV). These diseases have been documented in many non-domestic cat species and can be fatal. Effective vaccines are commercially available for use in domestic cats, but for the majoriry of exotic species the most appropriate vaccine Qrpes, their effectiveness and the duration of immuniry produced have not been fully determined.
Many differing opinions are expressed on whether to use modified live or inactivated (killed) vaccines and how often they should be given. In general, the use of live or modified live vaccines should be avoided to eliminate the potential for vaccine-induced disease or post-vaccinal virus shedding.
Several general points should be made concerning the vaccination of exotic felids with vaccines designed for domestic cats. Firstly, ther is little evidence that any benefit arises from using larger volumes of vaccine than those recommended for domestic animals. Secondly, given that severely stressed aanimals may not mount adequate responses to vaccines, such animals may require vaccinating at more frequent intervals. For example, it may be wise to revaccinate a newly arrived cat iirespective of whether or not it has received a recent booster. Finally, the occasional animal may develop an adverse reaction to a vaccine, and all animals should be carefully observed following vaccination. Usually such reactions are local swellings, a mild malaise or temporary rise in body temperature with depressed appetite. Lameness following vaccination against FCV may also occur. However, more severe reactions have been recorded. In one case an allergic anaphylactic reaction caused the death of a jaguar within 24 hours of vaccination.
A wide variery of vaccines and vaccine schedules are used in exotic cats. None is absolutely right or wrong and individual circumstances may dictate unique approaches.
ultimately the protocol used should be arrived at by discussing all relevant faclors with the veterinary surgeon responsible.
6.1 Feline Infectious Enteritis.
Both modified live and inactivated vaccines are safe and effective in domestic cats, although live vaccines must not be used in pregnant animals. Given that there have been reports of live vaccines causing acrual disease in small cat species, only the use of inactivated vaccines is recommended unreservedly. To obtain the maximum response to vaccination, initial doses should be given at 8, 10, 12, 14 and 16 weeks and boosters after a further 6 months and annually thereafter. Six-monthly boosters are recommended where the exposure to disease is high.
6.2 Cat "Flu".
Live vaccines against FRT/FCV have also resulted in clinical disease in some smaller species, so again only inactivated vaccmes can be recommended unreservedly. The recommended schedule of vaccination is as for FRT, and both vaccines can be given at the same time. There is evidence that in the cheetah, inactivated boosters should be given every 6 months, and this would also be wise in the face of outbreaks or an increased risk of exposure.

Table 1. Anthelmintics
Parasite Drug Dose Route
Nematodes:
(Roundworms) Fenbendazole 100mg/kg Oral
Fenbendazole 20mg/kg daily Oral
for 5 days.
Mebendazole 15mg/kg daily Oral
for 3 - 5 days.
Ivermectin 0.2mg/kg Oral or
subcutaneous
Piperazine-adipate 80 - 100mg/kg Oral
repeated after
2 - 4 weeks.
Pyrantel pamoate 3 - 5mg/kg daily Oral
for 3 - 5 days.
(tapeworms) Praziquantel Smg/kg Oral
Fenbendazole As above
Protozoans:
Coccidia Sulphadimethoxine 5Omg/kg Oral
Ectoparasites:
Mites Ivermectin 0.2mg/kg Oral or
subcutaneous.

6.3 Live FIE & FRT/FCV Vaccines.
Live FIE and FRT/FCV vaccines have been used extensively in the UK without producing disease in spotted leopard, jaguar, lion and tiger, although whether post-vaccinal virus shedding occurs remains unknown. Live vaccines should not be used in white tigers or any cat that may be pregnant. Initial doses given at 8, 12 and 16 weeks should suffice. Boosters should be given as for the inactivated vaccines.
6.4 Rabies.
All felids are susceptible to rabies but as the UK is currently free of the disease, vaccination is prohibited. In other countries, for example the USA, inactivated rabies vaccines are used routinely in all species. Live rabies vaccines must never be used.
6.5 Feline Leukaemia.
Vaccines are now available in the UK against feline leukaemia. It is claimed that vaccinated domestic cats are protected against the persistence of the virus in the animal and against the formation of lymphoid rumours otherwise induced by the virus. Infections with FeLV have been documented in puma, cheetah and clouded leopard although it is believed to be rare and the potential to cause disease uncertain. Antibody responses to vaccination have been detected in some non-domestic species, but the effectiveness in preventing infection has yet to be demonstrated. At present, the vaccine cannot be recommended for widespread use in exotic cats.
6.6 Miscellaneous.
In the face of a particular local problem it may be necessary to vaccinate agahist the bacterial disease leptospirosis. Cats are not particularly susceptible to this condition but they do occasionally succumb. Where this vaccine is indicated, boosters are necessary every 3 months. Similarly, where felids are at high risk (eg. near an outbreak or wildlife reservoir population), it may be wise to vaccinate against canine distemper as this viral disease has been known to cause problems in several species of non-domestic cats including lion, tiger and leopard. Only inactivated vaccines should be used, but unfomlneately these are not currently available in the UK. A vaccine against FIP is curently available in the USA and will shortly be introduced into Europe for use in domestic cats. At present, no comment can be made concerning its safety or efficacy in non domestic species.